Farming Systems - Study Materials

Agroecology is a system of agriculture and land management that looks to natural ecosystems and ecological principles to inform its agricultural practice and feeds the soil to feed the plant. It is a practice, a science and a social movement. It is not just a science as it includes the local knowledge and experience of food producers, especially women, as well as the struggle of social movements for a more just and sustainable world. 

Like food sovereignty, agroecology is a concept that that integrates the ecological, financial and political issues faced by small-scale food growers. It values traditional peasant farming systems, as well as new ecological management practices.

Features

• It recycles soil fertility and optimises available soil nutrients. It improves soil conditions for plant growth by managing organic matter, improving soil structure, cultivating ground cover, and enriching soil organisms. 
  
• It uses renewable and on-farm resources, such as nitrogen fixation and renewable energy. 
  
• It produces minimal pollutants such as greenhouse gases and nitrates.
  
• It minimises the loss of resources by managing the soil, water and microclimate. It conserves soil, water, energy and genetic resources.
  
• It diversifies local landscapes, habitats and economies.
  
• It empowers local people.
  
• It adapts to local environments and ecosystems.
  
• It promotes biodiversity and productive biological systems. It values the health of ecosystems, people and living organisms.
  

Networks

Nyeleni Newsletter www.nyeleni.org 

Agroecology Alliance www.campaignforrealfarming.org/agroecologybill/behind

Campaign for Real Farming www.campaignforrealfarming.org

Publications

The Nyeleni Declaration -International Forum for Agroecology

http://nyeleni.org/IMG/pdf/DeclNyeleni-en.pdf

Videos

Agroecology – Vision, Practice, Movement: Voices From Social Movements

www.agroecologynow.com/video/ag

Biodynamic agriculture was the first ecological farming system to arise in response to commercial fertilisers and specialized agriculture after the turn of the century, yet it remains largely unknown. A basic ecological principle of biodynamics is to conceive of the farm as an organism, a self-contained entity. 

Features

• While biodynamics parallels organic farming in many ways, especially with regard to cultural and biological farming practices it is set apart from other agroecology systems by its association with the spiritual science of anthroposophy. This was founded by Rudolf Steiner with its emphasis on farming practices: 
  
• to achieve balance between the physical and higher, non-physical realms
  
• to acknowledge the influence of cosmic and terrestrial forces
  
• to enrich the farm, its products, and its inhabitants with life energy
  

Biodynamics is a combination of biological practices including a series of well-known organic farming techniques that improve soil health, and dynamic practices. These are intended to influence biological as well as metaphysical aspects of the farm (such as increasing vital life force), or to adapt the farm to natural rhythms (such as planting seeds during certain lunar phases). The concept of dynamic practice like vitality, life force, ki, subtle energy and related concepts is in common with many systems of alternative and complementary medicine. 

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• Biological Practices - Green manures, Cover cropping,  Composting, Companion planting, Integration of crops and livestock, Tillage and cultivation.
  
• Dynamic practices - Planting by calendar, Peppering for pest control, Homeopathy, Radionics, Special compost preparations, Special foliar sprays.
  

Biodynamic farmers follow a spiritual methodology in conjunction with other organic techniques to keep farms sustainable and self-nourishing, as outlined by Rudolf Steiner.  The farm is seen as its own closed-loop ecosystem, in tune with the rhythm of nature, such as how the phase of the moon may impact when it's best to plant seeds and how the planets affect plant growth – extensive research has produced the Biodynamic Calendar which indicates the best days for planting crops according to what needs to be harvested from them.  For example, as the tides are affected by the phases of the moon, so is the moisture in plants, making sowing seeds for leaf production more advantageous as the moon is waxing and for root cropping as the moon is waning. 

Demeter, a certification programme for biodynamically grown foods, was established in 1928. As such, Demeter was the first ecological label for organically produced foods.

Organisations

The Biodynamic Association Http://biodynamic.org.uk

Biodynamic Agricultural College www.bdacollege.org.uk

Publications

What is biodynamic agriculture?

https://www.biodynamics.com/pdf/f07bd/f07bd-koepfwhatisbdag.pdf

Biodynamic farming and compost preparation

http://www.demeter-usa.org/downloads/Demeter-Science-Biodynamic-Farming-&-Compost.pdf

Biodynamic farming – compost preparations

http://www.herbaltransitions.com/Newsletters%20and%20other%20goodies/Biodynamic%20farming.pdf

Videos

Biodynamic agriculture interviews for the film The Challenge of Rudolf Steiner. 52 mins.

Bill Mollison, who developed the concept of permaculture, described it as “consciously designed landscapes which mimic the patterns and relationships found in nature while yielding an abundance of food, fibre and energy for provision of local needs.” It is a system of agricultural and social design principles centered around simulating or directly utilizing the patterns and features observed in natural ecosystems. The word permaculture comes from permanent agriculture and permanent culture - it is about living lightly on the planet, and making sure that we can sustain human activities for many generations to come, in harmony with nature. Permanence is not about everything staying the same. Its about stability, about deepening soils and cleaner water, thriving communities in self-reliant regions, biodiverse agriculture and social justice, peace and abundance.

Permaculture is a philosophy of working with, rather than against nature; of protracted and thoughtful observation rather than protracted and thoughtless labour; and of looking at plants and animals in all their functions, rather than treating any area as a single product system. It is the conscious design and maintenance of agriculturally productive ecosystems which have the diversity, stability, and resilience of natural ecosystems. It is the harmonious integration of landscape and people providing their food, energy, shelter, and other material and non-material needs in a sustainable way.

One practical application is pastured poultry paddocks - a healthy way to maintain a flock of chickens and contribute to the fertility of the soil. In this system, multiple areas of diverse pasture are grown, and the chicken flock is rotated through each area in turn. As the vegetation and insect population of one paddock is eaten down, the flock is shifted on to the next paddock and the first paddock is allowed to recover with the addition of the richness of chicken manure. 

Features

• This unique combination is then used to support the creation of sustainable, agriculturally productive, non-polluting and healthy settlements. In many places this means adapting existing settlements. In other cases it can mean starting from scratch. Both offer interesting challenges and opportunities.
  

Permaculture ethics

Earth care - Provision for all life systems to continue and multiply. This is the first principle, because without a healthy earth humans cannot flourish. Permaculture works with natural systems, rather than in competition with them. It uses methods that have minimal negative impact on the Earth’s natural environment. In everyday life, this may involve buying local produce, eating in season, and cycling rather than driving. Its about choices we make, and how we manage the land. It’s about designing and creating healthy systems that meet our needs without damaging the planet. Permaculture systems support and are supported by emerging holistic scientific perspectives and the growing new eco-spiritual awareness of humankind as a part of the natural world and dependent upon nature.

• People care - Provision for people to access those resources necessary to their existence. This is about ensuring the wellbeing of both individuals and communities. As individuals, we need to look after ourselves and each other so that as a community we can develop environmentally friendly lifestyles. In the poorest parts of the world, this is still about helping people to access enough food and clean water, within a safe society. In the rich world, it means redesigning our unsustainable systems and replacing them with sustainable ones. 
• Fair share - The third ethic recognises that the Earth’s resources are limited and these resources need to be shared amongst many beings. Reinvesting surpluses back into the system to provide for the first two ethics. This includes returning waste back into the system to recycle into usefulness. The third ethic is sometimes referred to as Fair Share to reflect that each of us should take no more than what we need before we reinvest the surplus. This also includes limits to consumption and, controversially, limits to reproduction. It also includes the distribution of the surplus.
  

A commonly used design process is 'OBREDIM'. This stands for:

• Observation - key to permaculture is good observation. Use all of your senses. Record observations systematically. Try to observe land over the four seasons and in different weather, especially extremes - frost, heavy rain, very warm, etc. Where does the snow clear first? Where does frost collect? Where does it stay wet or boggy longest? What is the wind like in the winter, and in the summer? Where do cats like to sit (the warmest spots!) What wildlife is there? What is the soil like and does it vary over the site? 
• Boundaries – Another key characteristic is soft edges as in ecoclines ( a gradation or gradient from one ecosystem to another when there is no sharp boundary between the two). What are the boundaries of the site? Walk them and see what you find. What is over the fence, how will this affect you? What are the boundaries of the project - its 'scope'.
• Resources - What resources exist? Financial resources - what money is available to invest in the project? Is it available in a lump sum or small amounts over many months? What skills are there? What plants, structures or other resources are available? Is funding available from outside bodies? 
• Evaluation - Analysis of what you have got - how do elements interact? Evaluate your resources, will they make a big project possible, or do you need to design a long programme of small changes?
• Design - This is where you can play with all your colouring pencils! A base map of what exists can be overlayed with tracing paper and you can start to look at how different aspects of the design might look. Many design techniques exist and most are relatively easy to use.
• Implementation - Consider how your plans can be made real, consider the timing/phasing of the project. Create a plan of action and ensure that everyone knows what the plan is. (Best to involve them right from the start, if it doesn't reflect what they want to happen, it won't!) 
• Maintain - Make sure that you consider what maintenance is involved when you are designing. There is no point creating a system that needs 3 days a week to maintain, if there are only 2 days available.
  

Organisations

The Permaculture Association www.permaculture.org.uk

Network

Permanent Culture Now www.permanentculturenow.com

World Permaculture Network http://permacultureglobal.org

Publications

Open Permaculture School Http://openpermaculture.com

Videos

Bill Mollison Global Gardener 3 In cool climates

Masanobu Fukuoka wrote The One-Straw Revolution to describe his system of natural farming. He did not plough his fields, used no agricultural chemicals or prepared fertilisers, did not flood his rice fields as farmers have done in Asia for centuries, and yet his yields equalled or surpassed the most productive farms in Japan.

Videos

The One Straw Revolution by Masanobu Fukuoka

Natural Farming with Masanobu Fukuoka

Publications

Masanobu Fukuoka's Natural Farming and Permaculture

http://www.permaculture.com/node/140

One Straw Revolution

www.onestrawrevolution.net

A sustainable agriculture system should be based on minimum tillage (min-till) as tillage or cultivation in most cases leads to unavoidable soil erosion and degradation. Crucially it disturbs the soil ecosystem and its organisms.

For organic min-till (or reduced till) farming systems a cover crop can be planted which is then rolled flat or cut before planting the next crop. Min-tillage farming has recently become more popular in non-organic farming systems as it protects and conserves their soil and saves time and money. It can reduce or even eliminate the need to till fields for planting or weed control. But this system relies on herbicides for weed control. 

Features

To mimic ecosystems min-tillage needs:

• to be a permanent feature. This allows soil organisms to establish in the soil profile to its full potential and diversity and to avoid damaging the soil structure developed by the soil organisms.
  
• to cover the soil permanently with organic material. This provides shelter and protection from sun, rain, heat, cold and wind and which also provides the substrate for the soil organisms to feed on and to perform a variety of ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, water infiltration and erosion control.
  
• to have a diversity of crops. Ecosystems in very few cases are pure stands of one species. The more stable and resilient ecosystems show a high degree of diversity. In agriculture, this can be achieved either by diverse crop rotations, or by crop associations, inter-, under- or relay cropping. 
  

The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has developed the concept of Conservation agriculture (http://www.fao.org/ag/ca/1a.html) to include these three elements. However it states that “external inputs such as agrochemicals and plant nutrients of mineral or organic origin are applied optimally”. So this is not organic farming.

Publications

No-till agriculture – a climate smart solution?

http://orgprints.org/20302/1/MISEREOR_no_till.pdf

Videos

Organic, no-till agroecolgy/permaculture farm suppresses insect and disease pests

No dig abundance

Living with the land 5 – No-dig gardening. 7 mins.

Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of different crops on the same land in successive seasons. It is a type of polyculture. The land is divided into 3, 4 or more sections, and different types of crops rotated each year to confuse pests and renew soil. Specifically legumes can be planted to fix nitrogen into the soil and benefit the planting of brassicas and other crops the following year. Similarly, crops that do not appreciate large amounts of fresh manure, such as carrots and parsnips, can be planted on ground that has been manured the previous year for crops such as onions, salads and legumes.

Benefits

Rotating crops can add nutrients to the soil, increasing soil fertility and crop yield. A traditional element of crop rotation is the renewal of nitrogen by using green manure in sequence with cereals and other crops. Also legumes have nodules on their roots which contain nitrogen-fixing bacteria called rhizobium bacteria. This can be followed by a crop that needs nitrates, such as potatoes or cereals. Crop rotation also reduces the build-up of pathogens and pests that often occurs when one species is continuously cropped. It can also improve soil structure and fertility by alternating deep-rooted and shallow-rooted plants. Lastly it can help to reduce soil erosion.

Features

Organic crop rotation systems can vary hugely but all involve a fertility building phase followed by a productive phase. It is the nitrogen fixing ability of legumes, especially clovers, vetches, sainfoin and lucerne (alfalfa) but can also include various beans and peas. Clovers and other legumes can be undersown with cereals.

Ground rules

• Use crop sequences that promote healthier crops, help in controlling weeds.
  
• Deep rooting crops should follow shallow rooting crops
  
• Crops which develop slowly and are therefore susceptible to weeds should follow weed suppressing crops
  
• Alternate between:
  
• crops with high and low root biomass
  
• leaf and straw crops
  
• autumn and spring sown crops
  
• crops of different species or families
  
• nitrogen fixing crops and nitrogen demanding crops
  
• Catch crops, green manures, and undersowing should be used to keep the soil covered
  
• Grow some crops that will leave a significant amount of residue.
  
• Use variety and crop mixtures when possible. When growing a wide mix of crops try grouping into blocks according to plant family, timing of crops, type of crop (root vs. fruit vs. leaf), or crops with similar cultural practices.
  

Publications

Crop rotation on organic farms

http://www.sare.org/Learning-Center/Books/Crop-Rotation-on-Organic-Farms

Videos

Organic Crop Rotations: Conservation Benefits. 90 mins.